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WHAT IS IT?


Sub-contractors


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CONCRETE EQUIPMENT


A variety of equipment is used to transport and manage concrete on a construction site. It is a difficult material to move around the site due to its weight and viscosity, however it is still one of the most common construction materials. The key pieces of equipment include: concrete pumps, trucks, mixers, and kibble buckets.


Concrete trucks transport concrete from the mixing plant to site. They are also known as concrete transit mixers. A concrete truck is most easily recognised by its rotating drum, which continuously rotates when a load of concrete is on board. This ensures that the concrete mix doesn’t set, and remains a homogenous combination of water, sand, aggregate, and cement. On a smaller construction site, a project where only a small volume of concrete is required, or when there is no mixing plant close to the site, contractors may mix the concrete on-site using a standalone mixer.


Concrete pumps are used to move concrete in its liquid state. Pumps are used on projects when the loading area for the concrete truck is some distance away from where the concrete will be used. Concrete pumps work with a boom or a boom arm attached. These booms are used to pump concrete to areas where access is not feasible for the truck (e.g. above ground level, urban infill sites). There are two types of booms that are commonly encountered on Australian construction sites: mobile or articulated booms, and concrete placement booms. Mobile or articulated booms are used for construction below ground and for buildings that have a few levels. They are characterised by a mechanical boom arm that reaches up and over the site with a flexible concrete placing hose at one end. Mobile and articulated booms have limited capacity to pump concrete at a high pressure, therefore for projects that have more than a few levels above ground, a concrete placement boom may be required. These are fixed booms that are installed on a lower level near the commencement of the project and are moved up as the building increases in height. The pump in this panorama is an example of a concrete placement boom.


A kibble or kibble bucket is a vessel used to hold concrete whilst it is being moved around a site using an overhead crane. Kibbles come in different capacities (usually between 0.5 and 1.5m3) and are of steel construction. They are used in circumstances where a pump may not be appropriate, the truck cannot access the location, or a wheelbarrow cannot be used to transport the concrete on the site.


To finish off the concrete once the pour has occurred, some smaller pieces of equipment are used. A concrete vibrator is used to get the air out of the concrete. Air bubbles in the concrete can lead to cracks and deformity in the concrete component, thus undermining its strength. A concrete vibrator helps to remove these air bubbles and provide an even finish. A concrete finisher helps to smooth and level the surface of the concrete. Finishing can either be done using manual labour using a hand trowel or by using machinery, like a motorised power trowel.
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Images credits:
Peter Ashford, Makita, Wikimedia Commons
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CRANE


A crane is a piece of heavy machinery that is used on sites to lift and lower building materials or components. It can also be used to move components and materials horizontally across sites. Cranes are most commonly seen on larger projects, especially taller buildings. All cranes have different weight capacities for the load it can carry.


There are several types of cranes that may be used in a construction project. Tower cranes – including Luffing Tower Cranes - are fixed or attached to the structure of the building. The arm of the crane – which can be called the jib or the boom arm – can move up and down, and the crane can also pivot 360° degrees. The hook – where the load, material or component is attached – sits on the end of the jib or boom arm. To install the crane, a pad footing is poured on the site to take the load of the crane (and it often remains once construction has concluded). A kit of parts including the mast, slewing unit, operating cabin, boom arm and/or jib are then progressively put together to make up the crane. The Hammerhead Tower Crane has a fixed boom arm that sits in a horizontal position. In the Hammerhead example, the hook of the crane is the component that moves along the fixed boom arm. Hammerhead cranes are useful in construction projects where there are height restrictions, such as airports.


Mobile cranes are another type of commonly used crane system. Mobile cranes can move around a site or come to site temporarily. They typically have a telescopic boom arm that extends out when in use and retracts when it is being transported. When on site, they are not very space efficient as they require a large base for stabilisation, but they are quick to deploy and require very little on-site assembly. Examples of when a mobile crane is deployed includes: when the tower crane has already been removed but construction at heights involving a crane still needs to be completed (e.g. installing a roof panel), or when the construction project only has a very short program of works that requires the use of a crane. Crawler cranes are another form of mobile crane. The biggest difference in a crawler crane is its base: the crane mechanism sits on a set of crawler tracks, making the crane excellent for accessing muddy, uneven sites. It is also able to transport loads around a site, whereas a traditional mobile crane cannot.
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Images credits:
Peter Ashford, CraneMarket.com, All Terrain Services
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EXCAVATOR


Groundworks


An excavator is a type of heavy construction equipment that is used for excavating or moving earth on a construction site. Its primary function is to create trenches, holes or tunnels for the sub-structure of a building or for the laying of services on site. It may also be used in demolition or landscaping works.


Many excavators can also have a variety of different attachments that allows this machinery to perform different earth moving functions, such as grading (levelling) a site, driving piles, moving heavy objects/materials around a site, and other heavy-duty tasks.


In this example, there are two excavators at work. Both are clearing soil from around the piles or piers that have already been poured.
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Video credit:
Peter Ashford
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FLOORS


A summary


Part of the super-structure of a building, floors may be constructed from concrete, steel, timber, combinations of these three primary materials, or other products.


Floor systems vary depending on the project scale. Timber and steel framed systems are common in single residential projects due to their low cost, ease of construction and quick installation. Timber floor systems involve a series of joists, bearers, stumps and pad footings. Steel floor systems also include the same members, however their layout may be slightly different. Concrete slabs are another common floor system and there are several varieties. Some types of concrete slabs include: on-ground, raft slabs, and waffle raft/waffle pod systems. Waffle raft/waffle pod systems are common in Australian residential construction as unlike other systems, waffle pod systems negate the need for digging strip footings. This saving results in a faster construction timeline and a reduction in labour costs. A waffle raft/pod system involves the following: hollowed out polystyrene pods sit on a flat, levelled, non-reactive site; steel reinforcement is then laid and positioned using small spacers called bar chairs. Formwork for the perimeter of the slab is constructed and finally, the concrete is poured.


For larger building projects, if a concrete floor is to be used, it will typically be cast-in-situ (poured in place) and it may be post-tensioned.


For information on the finishes applied to flooring systems, look for the Internal Finishes hotspot.
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Images credits:
The Siffordso Journal, Spantec, VH Building Group, Shutterstock
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FOOTING SYSTEMS


Footings are part of the sub-structure and are responsible from transferring the loads from the building into supporting soil or earth (known as the foundation). Footings are commonly constructed from concrete, steel or timber. A few examples of footings are explained below.


Pile footings can be constructed from concrete, steel or timber. Piles are deep footings. There are used when the soil near the surface has poor bearing capacity. Reinforced concrete piles are particularly common in Australia. Steel reinforcement is used to improve the strength of the concrete, adding the ability for the concrete to resist tensile forces. Reinforcement is embedded into the concrete and not exposed to air or water, otherwise it would rust. Concrete piles can be cast-in situ on site, or precast. Timber piles are less commonly used in modern construction; however, they can be seen in older, heritage buildings. Steel may also be used for piles and commonly use an H-section profile or cylindrical screw piles.


Pad footings are a shallow form of footings. They are more commonly seen in residential construction. In appearance, pad footings look like square blocks of reinforced concrete that support a single point load such as a stump or a column.


Strip footings are another form of shallow footings. Strip footings are long, continuous lengths of reinforced concrete that spreads the load across an area. Strip footings may be seen in all kinds of construction, but again, are most common in residential buildings.
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Images credits:
Peter Ashford, Shutterstock
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LIFT CORE


The lift core may also be known as a circulation, structural or service core. The lift core is a space or shaft that will rise vertically through the building. It is used for circulation - such as elevators/lifts or fire stairs - and services - such as electrical, plumbing, data or HVAC. The lift core is also usually a key part of the structure of the building. In combination with the floor plates and columns, the core provides stiffness that can resist lateral loads from wind and earthquakes. Because of this, when towers or tall buildings are under construction, the lift core is generally the first element to be built when a building progresses to a new level. The lift core is generally constructed from fire resistant materials, such as concrete or steel that has been treated with an appropriate fire-resistant coating.
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Video credits:
Lift core progress of PNB118, March 2020 by Styfly Studio
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LOGISTICS


Logistics covers a range of construction and safety equipment including hoists, lifts and loading bays. This category discusses equipment that helps to improve the safety of a work site and the efficiency of construction activity.


Hoists are used for vertical transportation in multi-storey construction projects. While the building is under construction, materials and labour still need to be able to access upper levels. These hoists are high-capacity – often being able to carry up to 30 workers in one carriage. These hoists are often seen on the outside face of tall buildings under construction. Some commonly used hoist systems include the Alimak and Scanclimber.


Lifts include the following equipment:


• Forklifts – used to move materials around the site;
• Scissor lifts – a form of elevated work platform that moves people and materials vertically and to a limited extent, horizontally at height;
• Boom lifts – another form of elevated work platform that moves people and materials vertically and horizontally;
• Duct lifter – elevates ventilation ducts and holds them in place while they are attached to the ceiling;
• Glass lifter – as glass is fragile and heavy, this piece of equipment is used to help workers during glazing installation. The suction cups on the equipment hold the glass in place while the motorised platform mobilises the glass from the point of delivery to the installation location. A crane attachment can also be used to deliver the same function.


Cantilever loading bays are used for simplifying the loading of equipment and materials onto each level of a tall building, and for removing waste from construction activity. The bays are cantilevered off the building, but the extra load generated by the contents of the bay means they often need additional support in the form of temporary props.
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Video credits:
Peter Ashford, GenieLift (Duct Lifter)
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PILING RIG / PILE DRIVER


A piling rig is a type of heavy construction equipment that drills the holes into earth or rock for cast-in-situ piles or bored piers. A piling rig may also be used in the construction of other elements of the substructure, such as d-walls (diaphragm walls) or foundation reinforcement/remediation. Depending on the type of soil that the piling rig is drilling into, a different
drill tool or auger is attached to the rig.


A pile driver or piling hammer is a type of heavy construction equipment that drives or rams piles into the ground. The action of a pile driver is similar to that of an oversized hammer, tapping or vibrating the pile(s) into the ground repeatedly.


In some cases, a piling rig will have a driver or hammer attachment as part of the same piece of machinery.
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Video credit:
Peter Ashford
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TEMPORARY PROPS


Temporary props are members that are used in the short-term to support loads during the construction process. The purpose of props is to hold components or materials in place while they are not fully secure or not yet supported by the super-structure or another component – for example, props hold up formwork while concrete cures, or bracing props are used to hold precast panels in place while the remaining panels are erected and before the structure becomes self-supporting.


Props can be made from aluminium, steel, or timber. There are various types of props for different applications: such as adjustable height props (also known as Acrow Props or jack posts), tri-props, or aluminium braces.
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Images credits:
Peter Ashford
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WASTE


Construction waste is the excess, demolished or unwanted rubbish and materials that are generated from construction activity and its associated processes. The definition of construction waste can also be extended to excavated material (e.g. rock, earth), which may be clean or contaminated. Sources of construction waste include demolition, offcuts, excavation, leftover materials and by-products generated by construction activity (e.g. sludge). Waste containers or receptacles are used to contain, sort and secure any waste that is generated on-site. Equipment used includes: skips, bins, and waste chutes. If the waste is contaminated – for example, contaminated with asbestos – removal must be conducted using safety equipment, personal protective wear, and waste disposed of using an approved method (e.g. buried, incinerated, etc).


Waste is either disposed of in landfill, diverted to resource recovery centres, recycled into new components or reused. Construction waste is a significant contributor to Australia’s waste output. In Australia between 2016-2017, 20.4 million tonnes of waste was generated from construction and demolition activity (Pickin, Randell, Trinh, & Grant, 2018), representing as much as 30% of all waste generated during that period. Waste management on site is typically governed by a waste management plan. The waste management plan employs strategies to minimise the amount of waste generated on-site and reduce the amount of waste sent to landfill.
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Pickin, J., Randell, P., Trinh, J., & Grant, B. (2018).  National Waste Report 2018. Canberra, ACT: Department of the Environment and Energy, Commonwealth of Australia. Accessed at: https://bit.ly/2uJkSoy


Images credits:
Katie Skillington
Shane McLendon on Unsplash, Rumman Amin on Unsplash
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DEFECTS


A building defect is a construction outcome that is in breach of the building contract, the relevant building code, or governing standards, due to an evident fault or deviation from the original intended function of a material or component.


Defects are typically monitored towards the end of a project, and for a specified period once the building has reached practical completion. The building contract will note how long the contractor is liable for rectifying building defects – 12 months is a common length of time. Examples of building defects include: structural cracks, sagging in elements, leaking plumbing fixtures, stuck or jammed doors/windows, or cracked materials such as roof tiles.



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Image credit:
Construction Reviews Online
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EQUIPMENT AT
FIT OUT


A summary


A variety of different pieces of equipment may be used during fit out, including some that have already been introduced earlier. However, as fit out work usually involves smaller, detailed tasks, the majority of equipment used during this phase are smaller plant or equipment. These include hand tools, power tools or pneumatic tools.


It is not possible to list every piece of equipment or plant that may be used during fit out – if we did, there would be hundreds of items. However, the more common tools that may be seen on-site include: nail guns, electric drills, sanders, saws (circular, mitre/drop, jigsaw), vacuums/dust extractors, air compressors (for pneumatic tools), polishers, angle grinders, etc…


The use of this equipment may necessitate the use of specific Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) that is beyond normal site Occupational Health and Safety requirements, such as ear protection, eye protection, respirators or gloves.
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Image credit:
Annie Gray, Grayson Joralemon, Karan Bhatia, and NeONBRAND on Unsplash; Laineema on Flickr; Wikimedia Commons; US Marine Corps;
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EXTERIOR FINISHES


Exterior finishes or cladding refers to the materials that form the exterior skin of the building. Typically, exterior finishes or cladding are elements attached to the outside of the building. However, in some cases, the exterior skin may also be the structure of the building (e.g. a double brick wall, or a concrete building with no secondary cladding attached). Exterior finishes and cladding are necessary for creating a comfortable interior environment (thermally and acoustically), protecting the building from weather, providing security and privacy to interior spaces, creating an exterior appearance, and to aid in fire suppression.


Exterior finishes or cladding may either be a physical material or an applied finish. For physical materials, these may be directly attached to the structure of the building or attached via a secondary support system that is tied back to the structure. Examples of exterior cladding include: timber, fibre cement sheet, brick, concrete, stone, metal products or composite panels (such as aluminium composite panels). Exterior finishes include paint, oils and stains, charring, and render.



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Image credit:
Brett and Sue Coulstock on Flickr; Stephanie Ho on Pexels; Franck V, Alexander Tsang and Anders Vestergaard Jensen on Unsplash;
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FIXTURES


Fixtures are the items in a building that are fixed – such as toilets, basins, lights, cabinetry – as opposed to those items that are loosely in place and unfixed – such as curtains, soft furnishings and some appliances. Fixtures are installed towards the end of the fit out, once linings have been installed, services run and secondary internal finishes (such as tiling, painting, etc) are in the process of being completed.
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Image credit:
Piquels and Pixabay
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HARD LANDSCAPING


Hard landscaping refers to the constructed elements of a landscape design. This may include elements such as paths, planter boxes, screens, steps or platforms made from gravel, sand, concrete, bricks, metal, pavers or timber.
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Image credit:
Tim Cooper, Kouji Tsuru and Juandi Nella on Unsplash
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INTERIOR LININGS & FINISHES


Interior linings and finishes contribute to forming the final surfaces of an interior space. Interior linings and finishes typically enclose the structure and services in the building, preventing the building user from being able to see the ‘insides’ of a building – such as the framing, insulation, wiring, etc… Interior linings refer to the physical product that is used to enclose the building structure and services. Interior finishes refers to the secondary treatment that may be applied to protect the lining, improve its durability, or alter its appearance. As one of the last processes to occur in a construction project, the installation of linings and finishes is usually an indicator that the building is very close to nearing completion.


The application of internal linings and finishes usually involves building up of several layers – i.e. a basic white wall may involve plasterboard and at least 3 coats of paint. Some examples of interior linings include plasterboard (also known as drywall, gypsum board or Sheetrock), plywood, timber flooring, ceramic tiles, and carpet. Some examples of interior finishes include paint, oils, limewashes, stains, and other coatings.


To select an interior lining or finish, the architect or designer on the project will consider several factors, such as cost, project aesthetics (the way it looks), durability, maintenance, lifespan, fire rating, environmental effects, availability and the ease of installation or application.
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Image credit:
Charles Deluvio on Unsplash, Henry & Co on Unsplash, NeONBRAND on Unsplash
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SERVICES


A summary


During the fit out stage, several building services will be installed. Although accommodations for these services will have been built into the structure of the building, the actual running (or installation) of the equipment that facilitates the operation of these systems occurs during fit out. Building services are systems installed in the building to make them habitable, comfortable, safe spaces. Depending on the building, there may be specialist services that may be required – such as in hospitals, where pipes and equipment for oxygen or other gases may need to be installed.


Examples of building systems include but are not limited to the following: HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning), electrical and power, data, lighting (including switching), security, water, and fire suppression systems.


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Image credit:
Cameron Tidy and Mitchell Luo on Unsplash; Aidan on Flickr; Polina Zimmerman and Unknown on Pixabay; Pexels;
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SOFT LANDSCAPING


Soft landscaping refers to the vegetation and landscaping elements that create the garden or landscape around a project. This may also be known as the greenery or planting beds that sit external to the building. Soft landscaping includes: shrubs, trees, grasses and herbaceous plants, aquatic and semi-aquatic plants.
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Image credit:
NeONBRAND, Anna Earl and Jimmy Tompkins on Unsplash
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CREDITS



We gratefully acknowledge the assistance and collaboration of our partners in developing this learning resource:


• Multiplex Australasia (Ross Snowball, Jeff Nixon, Jackson Leigh, Yue-Li Tan, Danni Dodgson, Danielle Savio, Josh Heath, Lauren Leslie, Marijana Perin, Paul Fredricksen, James Hawker) for their assistance in filming site panoramas, interviews with staff and coordination.
• Fender Katsalidis (Hayley Cleeland, Peta Michaelides, James Pearce, Melinda Chan, Wuff Keeble, Jack Swann, Charmayne Dulley, Jim Stewart) for their assistance in filming an office panorama, interviews with staff and coordination.
Johanna Trickett (Aurecon), Nicole Trumbull (WT Partnership) and Rohan Games (Webber Design) for their participation in the filming of interviews.


• Watpac (Chloe Pukk and Justin Alcorn) and the Australian Catholic University for their assistance in filming the groundworks panorama.


• Students, staff and friends of the Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning at The University of Melbourne that assisted with the filming of panoramas: Adrian Chu, Aslan Nahri, Huiseung Sarah Song, James Helal, Kester Cheong, Siddarth Ramaswamy, Zikai Wang, Maria del Carmen Camacho Muncha, Warwick Levine, and Xavier Cadorel.


We gratefully appreciate assistance provided by the Learning Environments team at The University of Melbourne (especially Auryn Rotten and Rob Nairn) and the Built Environment Learning and Teaching (BEL+T) team at the Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning in the development of this content.


These learning resources have been developed by Robert Crawford, Katie Skillington and Nancy Samayoa, with assistance of the Flexible Academic Programming (FlexAP) project at The University of Melbourne.They were originally developed for the subject Understanding the Built Environment (ABPL10005).


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HOARDING


Hoarding is a temporary structure that prevents unauthorised access to a construction site and often shields construction works from view. Typically, hoarding is constructed from plywood sheeting erected on a steel or timber frame and acts as a physical barrier between the site and public areas, such as footpaths or accessible buildings. Perimeter hoarding also helps to limit and monitor the entry/exit points to the site. It is an important aspect of establishing a safe worksite for workers, visitors and the public.
Hoarding is often branded or used as a marketing platform for the project, the designer and/or the construction company. It is not uncommon to see the logo of the main contractor or advertising for the future building on a hoarding.



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Image credit:
Peter Ashford
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SCAFFOLDS &
SCREENS


A scaffold or scaffolding is a temporary structure that is used to elevate workers and their materials during construction or maintenance of a building. The purpose of scaffolding is to help workers safely access parts of the building that they otherwise would be not be able to. This is why it is commonly seen on buildings greater than two storeys/levels. Scaffolding may also be used to protect the public or other workers on- site from construction activity occurring above.


Scaffolds may be self-supporting or use an adjacent structure for stability. The construction of scaffolding and the materials used differs from country to country. Various types of material can be used to create scaffolding, including steel, aluminium, timber or bamboo. In Australia, safe work practices and standards must be followed in the construction and maintenance of scaffolding, as it is a particularly high-risk activity that can result in injury or death.


Screens (also known as perimeter safety screens) are used as a safety device in construction, protecting and securing a worksite. They are often attached to scaffolding. The purpose of screens is to prevent falls from a structure under construction and mitigate the risk of materials falling from a structure at height and injuring persons below. They also aid in protecting the site from trespassers and – to a limited extent – the weather.


Screens are typically modular, erected as each level is added to a structure, and can use a range of sheeting – with metal mesh or perforated metal panels being the most common in Australia.
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Video credit:
Kapwaw on Pexels.com
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STARTING A PROJECT


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